Abstract

In the Japanese philosophy of life, ‘ikigai’ broadly refers to having a ‘reason for living’, or a purpose in life. From a phenomenological and empirical viewpoint, ikigai is reported to increase human well-being and even life expectancy. However, it remains difficult to translate, define and formalize with regard to contemporary psychological theories. In this respect, the aim of this paper is twofold: to capture as accurately as possible what ikigai is, and to examine whether the concept applies to a professional context. We first offer a comprehensive overview of ikigai, bridge the gap between this specific body of literature and related psychological theoretical frameworks, such as those addressing motivation, well-being, and attention. On this basis, we conceptualize an integrated cognitive-motivational model of ikigai using an IPO (Input-Process-Output) framework: we organize dispositional or situational factors supposedly supporting ikigai as inputs, fueling the core process of ikigai (mainly built from motivational and attentional mechanisms), which produce outcomes (including well-being). A feedback loop completes the model and allows the process to maintain over time. This conceptual proposal is a first step towards applying and testing the model in professional contexts, in order to renew our approach of engagement, well-being, and performance at work as well as inspire workplace evolution.

Overview & Summary

This paper addresses the Japanese concept of ikigai—broadly translated as "a reason for living" or a sense that "life is worth living"—and seeks to formalize it within modern psychological literature to evaluate its applicability to the workplace. Although empirical research in Japan connects ikigai to increased psychological well-being, better health, and reduced all-cause mortality, the concept lacks a consensual academic definition and a formalized cognitive model.

To bridge this gap, the authors synthesize cross-cultural literature and psychological theories—specifically Self-Determination Theory (SDT), Mindfulness, and Seligman’s PERMA framework—to construct an Integrated Cognitive-Motivational Model of Ikigai using an Input-Process-Output (IPO) framework with a continuous feedback loop.

Cultural Context and Evolution of Ikigai Concepts

Cultural Specificities

• Sociocentric vs. Individualistic Selves: The Japanese self tends to be socio-centric, contextual, interdependent, and aligned with collectivist values. In contrast, Western (especially North American) views prioritize individualism, autonomy, and personal distinction.

• Interpretation of Needs: Collectivist cultures emphasize contribution to the group, social hierarchy, and relational harmony, whereas individualist cultures focus on personal desires, self-reliance, and individual accomplishment.

Japanese Conceptualizations

• Kamiya’s Framework (1966): Identified seven universal needs that ikigai satisfies:

• Survival

• Growth and Change

• Future orientation (goals and dreams)

• Influence (feeling necessary to others)

• Freedom of choice

• Self-fulfillment/personal development

• Meaning of life (a sense of personal value and worth)

• Kumano’s Hierarchical Model (2006, 2012): Identified four central psychological states (Life-affirmation, Meaning of life, Life fulfillment, and Existential value) and five value-laden cognitive mechanisms (making sense of the past, setting future goals, being absorbed in the positive present, accepting negative situations, and coping with negative situations). Kumano placed subjective well-being and quality of life as peripheral rather than central to ikigai.

Western/Popular View (Winn’s Diagram)

• Developed as an adaptation of Andrés Zuzunaga’s "Purpose Venn Diagram" combined with Dan Buettner’s TED talk on Okinawan longevity.

• Represents ikigai as the intersection of four domains:

• What you love

• What you are good at

• What you are paid for

• What the world needs

• Strengths: Synthesizes internal personal desires, external financial rewards, and altruistic impact.

• Limitations: The inclusion of economic compensation ("what you are paid for") is debated; classical Japanese ikigai operates independently of financial rewards and can be found in family, hobbies, or community roles.

The Integrated Cognitive-Motivational Model (IPO Framework)

The authors model ikigai as a dynamic cognitive-motivational system using an Input-Process-Output (IPO) structure connected by a continuous feedback mechanism.

1. Inputs (Antecedents & Context)

Inputs consist of the dispositional traits and situational conditions required to initiate and foster the ikigai core processes:

• Situational Factors (Work Environment):

• Social & Physical Environment: Job content, organizational climate, workspace ergonomics, communication dynamics, and physical working conditions.

• Job Characteristics: Task variety, task identity, significance, autonomy, and feedback (per Hackman & Oldham) shift the perceived locus of causality inward, enhancing self-determination.

• Dispositional Factors (Individual Differences):

• Causality Orientation: Stable individual traits regarding motivational orientation (intrinsic vs. controlled/extrinsic) that influence how individuals interpret workplace tasks and environment.

2. Core Processes (Intrapersonal Mechanisms)

The engine of ikigai integrates motivational regulation and attentional processing:

• Self-Determination Theory (SDT): Fulfills three basic psychological needs:

• Competence: Feeling effective and capable.

• Autonomy: Feeling like the origin of one's actions.

• Relatedness: Feeling connected to and valued by others (strongly aligned with the sociocentric aspect of ikigai).

• Motivational Continuum: Spans from external regulation to intrinsic regulation. While traditional SDT sees intrinsic motivation as the ultimate goal, ikigai elevates identified and integrated regulations—doing things because they align with deeply held values or benefit society ("what the world needs").

• Mindfulness:

• Defined as nonjudgmental, open present-moment awareness.

• Serves as a wide, receptive attentional filter that balances self-interest with prosocial, altruistic goals (self-transcendence).

• Helps individuals align daily actions with core existential values.

3. Outputs (Observable & Internal Outcomes)

• Well-Being (Psychological & Subjective): Framed using Seligman’s PERMA model:

• Positive Emotions (P)

• Engagement (E)

• Relationships (R)

• Meaning (M)

• Accomplishment (A)

• Eudaimonic well-being (meaning, self-acceptance) is prioritized as a primary output over short-term hedonic pleasure.

• Physical Health & Longevity: Supported by empirical data linking strong ikigai to reduced cardiovascular/all-cause mortality and overall health maintenance.

• Workplace Performance: Proposed as a direct output resulting from enhanced intrinsic motivation, optimal engagement, and present-moment attentional focus.

4. Feedback Loop (Commitment Process)

• Behaviors and positive outputs reinforce psychological commitment (Kiesler & Sakumura).

• A continuous commitment loop feeds back into the core processes, sustaining ikigai as a self-maintaining, lifelong dynamic state.

Key Applications, Limitations, and Future Directions

• Workplace Design & Industry 4.0/5.0: The model offers a practical framework to design jobs, organizational management practices, and technological tools (including robotics in industrial/railway maintenance contexts) that satisfy workers' psychological needs, foster meaning, and promote well-being alongside productivity.

• Cultural Portability: Translating a socio-centric Japanese life philosophy to Western corporate settings presents challenges, particularly around navigating extrinsic rewards vs. intrinsic/altruistic values.